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Continuity and Change in Khanqah Traditions: A Historical Perspective
Dr. S.I.A. Muhammed Yasir Assistant Professor Department of History Jamal Mohamed College(Autonomous) Tiruchirappalli – 620020 prof.muhammedyasir@gmail.com
Pages: 01-08 | First Published: 01 Nov 2024
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Abstract

 The institution of the khanqah (Sufi hospice) has played a crucial role in the spiritual, social, and cultural landscape of India since the advent of Sufism in the subcontinent. Originating as centers of Sufi teaching, hospitality, and devotion, khanqahs evolved over centuries, adapting to changing socio-political contexts while retaining their core spiritual functions. This paper explores the historical evolution of khanqahs in India, analyzing their transformation from medieval times to the contemporary period. It examines how khanqahs functioned as centers of religious instruction, social welfare, and interfaith dialogue during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods. The study also considers the impact of colonial rule and modernity on these institutions, leading to changes in their administration, funding, and societal roles. While many khanqahs continue to serve as spiritual and cultural hubs, others have experienced decline due to urbanization, loss of patronage, and the waning influence of traditional Sufi orders. The research is based on historical texts, inscriptions, and field studies of select khanqahs in India, particularly those associated with the Chishti and Qadiri Sufi orders. The paper argues that despite significant changes, khanqahs remain vital to India’s religious and cultural fabric, maintaining their significanceThe study concludes that the adaptability of khanqahs reflects the dynamic nature
of Indian Sufism, balancing continuity with change to sustain their relevance in
contemporary society.
Keywords: Khanqah, Sufism, Indian history, religious institutions, cultural continuity

References
Primary Sources:
1. Al-Hujwiri, Ali bin Uthman. Kashf al-Mahjub (The Revelation of the Veiled). Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson. Lahore: Islamic Book Foundation, 1976.
2. NizamuddinAuliya, Amir Hasan. Fawaid al-Fu’ad (Morals and Teachings of NizamuddinAuliya). Translated by Bruce B. Lawrence. New Delhi: Idarah-iAdabiyat-iDelli, 1992.
3. Rumi, Jalal al-Din. Fihi Ma Fihi (Discourses of Rumi). Translated by A.J. Arberry. London: Allen & Unwin, 1961.
4. Ibn Battuta. Rihla (Travels of Ibn Battuta). Translated by H.A.R. Gibb. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958.
5. Al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid. IhyaUlum al-Din (The Revival of Religious Sciences). Translated by Fazlur Rahman. Karachi: DarulIshaat, 1993.

Secondary Sources:
6. Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971.
7. Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975.
8. Ernst, Carl W. Sufism: An Introduction to the Mystical Tradition of Islam. Boston: Shambhala, 1997.
9. Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. A History of Sufism in India, Volumes I & II. New Delhi: MunshiramManoharlal Publishers, 1978.
10. Eaton, Richard M. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
11. Muhammed Yasir, S. I. A. "Islamic Education InPallapattiKarur District A Historical Perspective."
Articles and Research Papers:
11. Chittick, William. “Sufism and Islamic Spirituality.” Religious Studies Review 26, no. 3 (2000): 197–203.
12. Green, Nile. “The Politics of Meditation in Colonial India: The Sufi Practice of Shabdh Yoga.” Modern Asian Studies 41, no. 2 (2007): 301–340.
13. Kugle, Scott. “Sufis and Saints’ Bodies: Corporeality, Sacred Space, and Islamic Devotion.” Religion Compass 2, no. 2 (2008): 256–278.
14. Hofer, Nathan. “The Origins and Development of the Khanqah in the Medieval Islamic World.” Journal of Islamic Studies 25, no. 3 (2014): 285–320.
15. Ahmed, Shahab. “Sufism, Sainthood, and the Islamic Public Sphere.” The Muslim World 92, no. 3–4 (2002): 267–295.
16. Eaton, R. M. (2003). India's Islamic Traditions: 711-1750. Oxford University Press.
17. Rizvi, S. A. A. (1978). A History of Sufism in India (Vol. 1 & 2). MunshiramManoharlal.
18. Schimmel, A. (1975). Mystical Dimensions of Islam. University of North Carolina Press.
19. Nizami, K. A. (1961). Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India During the 13th Century. Oxford University Press.
20. Ernst, C. (1997). The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. Shambhala Publications.
21. Green, N. (2012). Sufism: A Global History. Wiley-Blackwell.
22. Lawrence, B. B. (1983). Notes from a Distant Flute: The Extant Literature of Pre-Mughal Indian Sufism

23. Khan, M. A. (1998). The Political and Cultural Role of Khankahs in Medieval India.
24. Digby, S. (2004). Sufis and Soldiers in Awrangzeb's Deccan. Oxford University Press.
25. Kugle, S. (2007). Sufis and Saints' Bodies: Mysticism, Corporeality, and Sacred Power in Islam. 11-20.
26. Sadiq, T. Umar. "IMPACT OF SUFISM ONTAMIL SOCIETY, CULTURE AND LITERATURE." Jamal Academic Research Journal: An Interdisciplinary 3.1 (2022).
27. Tajdeen, M. Mohamed. "The contribution of the founders of Jamal Mohammad College in the India’s freedom struggle." Jamal Academic Research Journal: An Interdisciplinary 3.1 (2022).
28. Manuneethi, A., and M. Mohamed Tajdeen. "Land Endowment of Nawab Muhammad Ali Wallajah in Tiruchirappalli region with special reference to Christian Frederick Schwartz." Jamal Academic Research Journal: An Interdisciplinary 3.1 (2022).
29. Mohamed Tajdeen, M. "The Contribution Of Muslims To Higher Education In Tiruchirappalli 1951 2006 Ad."
30. UmarSadiq, T. "Emergence of Tamil Nationalism-A Socio-Political Study."
31. Yasir, SIA Muhammed. "Origin and Development of Islamic Education in Tamilnadu: A Historical Perspective." Jamal Academic Research Journal: An Interdisciplinary 3.1 (2022).
32. Yasir, Muhammed, and S. I. A. April. "Labour legislation in India–A historical study." Indian Journal of Applied Research 6.4 (2016): 34-36.
33. Viji, Major Dr M., and SIA Muhammed Yasir. "Fountains of Islamic Education in Ancient Tamilnadu: A Historical Perspective."
Contemporary Works and Case Studies:
16. Van Bruinessen, Martin, and Julia Day Howell, eds. Sufism and the ‘Modern’ in Islam. London: I.B. Tauris, 2007.
17. Zannini, Guido. Khanqahs and the Transformation of Sufi Institutions in the Modern Era. Berlin: Gerlach Press, 2019.
18. Moin, A. Azfar. The Millennial Sovereign: Sacred Kingship and Sainthood in Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.
19. Werbner, Pnina. Pilgrims of Love: The Anthropology of a Global Sufi Cult. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003.
20. Rahman, Fazlur. Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Wakf Administration during the British Rule
Dr.T.Umar Sadiq Associate Professor of History Jamal Mohamed College, (Autonomous) Tiruchirappalli- 620 020. umarjmc75@gmail.com
Pages: 09-17 | First Published: 05 Nov 2024
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Abstract

This research article delves into the administration of Wakfs during the British rule in India, tracing the historical evolution of Wakf institutions from their origins in Islamic tradition to their management under various rulers, including the Mughals and the British. The study highlights the significant role of mutawallis (trustees) in the administration of Wakfs and the challenges faced during the British colonial period, particularly the mismanagement and encroachment of Wakf properties. The article examines key legislative measures, such as the Religious Endowments Act of 1863 and the Mussalman Wakf Act of 1923, which aimed to regulate Wakf administration but often fell short of ensuring proper management. The research also explores the impact of British policies on Wakf properties, the role of local and central Wakf boards, and the judicial interventions that shaped the legal framework for Wakf administration in India. The study concludes with an analysis of the Wakf Act of 1954, which brought uniformity to Wakf administration across India, and highlights the ongoing challenges of encroachment and mismanagement of Wakf properties.

‘Wakf’ or habs is an Arabic word which literally means “detention, to prevent, restrain”. In Islamic concept it connotes the tying up of property of a third person.The origin of Wakf is to be sought in the strongly marked impulse to charitable deeds which is characteristics of Islam. The Quran contains no specific provision concerning Wakf, but it abounds injunctions in the matter of charity. Further the Wakf is defined as a permanent dedication of movable or immovable properties for religious, pious or charitable purposes as recognized by Muslim Law, given by philanthropists. 

The grant is known as mushrut-ul-khidmat, while a person making such dedication is known as Wakif.Historically, the origin of Wakf is traced to the tradition of the Prophet Muhammad. 

The earliest description of Wakf, created in India during the reign of Mahmud of Ghore probably between AD 1185-1195 is found in the Insha-i-Mahru, written by Aynul Mulk Multani who was an officer during the times of Jalahuddin Khilji (AD 1290-96). Evidence of the existence of Wakfs during later periods is found in many historical books and documents. Sultan Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed Ibn Battuta, the famous Morocco traveller, as the  mutawalli of Wakf in favour of the tomb of Sultan Qutbuddin  Mubarak Shah.The Tarikh-e-Ferozshahi establishes the existence of a large number  of Wakfs during the time of Sultan Alauddin Khilji (AD 1293-1316). Evidence relating to the existence of Wakfs during the Mughal period abounds and many of these kind Wakfs are in existence eventoday.

This research article attempts to focus the real condition of Wakf administration in India during the British Rule.

 

References

  •  Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. II, p.1096.

  • Mohamed Arif, The Islamic voluntary sector in South East Asia, Institute of South East Asian Studies,p.42.

  • Shibli Nanmaai, Seerat-un-Nabi, Vol.II, Azamgarh, Hijri 1352, pp.129-130.

  • The trustee of a Wakf or a religious building, Mutawalli is an Arabic word which means  one entrusted withsomething.

  • Waqai Sarkar Renthanpore, Persian Manuscript (MSS) ff.30-32. The Copy of this manuscript is available in the Department of History, Aligarh Museum University, Aligarh.

  • Irfan Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India, p.313.

  • Jaidunath Sarkar, Mughal Administration, Calcutta, 1952,p.96.

  • Hasan Ali Khan, S.A. Rashid, “Tawarikh-e-Dankf-e-Shehshahi in Medieval India, Quarterly, Vol.I, July 1950, No.1, pp.62-63.

  • Ibid.

  • M.B. Ahmed, Administration of Justice in Medieval  India, Aligarh, 1941,pp.23-27.

  • Mirat-e-Ahmadi, translated by S.Nawab Ali, Baroda, 1928, p.148.

  • Ain-i-Akbari, translated by Blockman, Vol.I, Delhi, 1927, p.281.

  • S.Khald Rashid, Wakf Administration in India, op.cit.,pp.11-12.

  • Proceedings of the Home Department (Public), 23 September 1859, pp.45-46, the dispatch is dated 22 October1812.

  • Ibid., The rely is dated 1 December,1812

  • Ibid., dated 29th   July1814.

  • Proceedings of the Home Department (Legislative) 20 September 1845,p.884.

  • I.T.Prichard, The Administration of India from 1859 to 1868, Vol. II, London, 1869, p.148.

  • Section 14 and 15 of the Religion Endowment Act,1863.

  • See Qazis Act II of 1864, which abolished the ‘Native’ LawOfficers.

  • Proceedings of the Home Department (Public) March, 1903, Vol. 121, PartA.

  • Ibid., No.116, 115, PartA

  • ProceedingsoftheHomeDepartment,(Judicial)March1911,No.142,PartA,Ibid.,

May 1914, Nos. 260-61.

  • Proceedings of the Home Department (Watan), Lahore 22 August 1902, P.S.Col.1.

  • Proceedings of the Legislative Department,  April 1902, Part B,No.58-60.

  • The Prominent among them were Nawab Abdul Majith Khan, Diwan Bahadur L.A. Govindaragava Iyer, SRM Ramasamy Chetty, Asad Ali Khan etc., See Also Proceedings of the Home Department (Judicial), July 1914, Part A,p.3.

  • The Bombay Act of (Wakf) 1935, added a new part III “Power of the Court to call for particulars and statement of Accounts from Mutawallis. In rest of the country, however, courts had no suchpowers.

  • It is a legal document regarding the ownership of property or legalrights.

  • K.P., Saksena, Muslim Law as Administered in India and Pakistan, Lucknow, 1963, pp.608-628.

  • Personal Interview with Mr. Syed Riza, Inspector, Wakf Board of Tamil Nadu,  Central Zone, Tiruchirappalli, 14th   May2014.

  • Sadiq, T. Umar. "IMPACT OF SUFISM ONTAMIL SOCIETY, CULTURE AND LITERATURE." Jamal Academic Research Journal: An Interdisciplinary 3.1 (2022).

  • Tajdeen, M. Mohamed. "The contribution of the founders of Jamal Mohammad College in the India’s freedom struggle." Jamal Academic Research Journal: An Interdisciplinary 3.1 (2022).

  • Manuneethi, A., and M. Mohamed Tajdeen. "Land Endowment of Nawab Muhammad Ali Wallajah in Tiruchirappalli region with special reference to Christian Frederick Schwartz." Jamal Academic Research Journal: An Interdisciplinary 3.1 (2022).

  • Mohamed Tajdeen, M. "The Contribution Of Muslims To Higher Education In Tiruchirappalli 1951 2006 Ad."

  • UmarSadiq, T. "Emergence of Tamil Nationalism-A Socio-Political Study."

  • Yasir, SIA Muhammed. "Origin and Development of Islamic Education in Tamilnadu: A Historical Perspective." Jamal Academic Research Journal: An Interdisciplinary 3.1 (2022).

  • Yasir, Muhammed, and S. I. A. April. "Labour legislation in India–A historical study." Indian Journal of Applied Research 6.4 (2016): 34-36.

  • Viji, Major Dr M., and SIA Muhammed Yasir. "Fountains of Islamic Education in Ancient Tamilnadu: A Historical Perspective."

  • Muhammed Yasir, S. I. A. "Islamic Education In Pallapatti Karur District A Historical Perspective."

 

 

 

The Muhammadan Educational Conference- A Pioneer Educational Organisation in India
M.Mohamed Tajdeen AssociateProfessor of History, Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli 620 020.
Pages: 18-26 | First Published: 05 Nov 2024
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Abstract 

            Education is the most powerful instrument of development in the modern time. The function of education is to mould the characteristics of individual in order provide self and social consciousness. Education helps in transmitting as well as transforming culture through developing socially responsible personalities. In this way, it contributes for the integration, sustenance and reproduction of them. Education acts as Integrative force in society by communicating value that unites different sections of society. The educational institutions can help the students to learn new skills and learn to interact with people of different social backgrounds. The ancient system of Muslim education, chiefly constituted Hadees, Muhammadan Law, Logic, Philosophy, Persian and Greek Medicine. Besides, there is no occasion on which Muhammadan may meet together to converse, on the subject of national education, and think over the means with which it may be advanced. In order to better the condition of the nation, it’s necessary that Muslims should try to do away with these deficiencies. This paper aimed to bring out formation and achievements of The Muhammadan Educational Conference in India. 

References

Recorded sayings and deeds of Prophet Muhammad

  1. Primary Education centre for Islamic education

  2.  Higher study center for Islamic education

  3. Jafri Begum, Muslim Society in India, New Delhi, 2002,  p.93

  4. Yogendra K.Sharma, History and Problems of India, New Delhi, 2001,  p.84

  5.  M.K. Akbar Basha, Muslim Education in Tamilnadu 1902-1935, Proceeding of Tamilnadu History Congress, Sixth Annual Session, Vaniyambadi, 1999, p.269.

  6.  A Journal of Indian of Indian Historical Studies, Trichy Vol. I., April 2005, p. 45

  7. G.O. No. Ms. 1931, Public dated (Elections) dated 12th September 1946.

  8.  Dr. Major Syed Shahabuddeen, Ibid., p. 174.

  9.  A., Wassey,  Education of Muslim Indian Muslims, Press India International Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 979, p. 67

  10.  Hardy, P., The Muslim of British India, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1972,   p-131

  11.  Granville Austin, Indian constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation, Oxford University Press, 1966, p. 53

  12.  Suresh Chandra Ghose, The History of Modern Education in India- 1757-1986, Orient    Longman, New Delhi, 1995, p-148

  13.  A. Asaraf Ali, Genesis of Islamiah College, Proceeding of Tami Nadu History Congress, Sixth Annual Session, Vaniyambadi, 1999, p. 134.

  14.  The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 4 May 1886

  15. The Pioneer, 29-30 December 1887.

  16.  A Lecture delivered by Muhammad Shah Din, President of Ninth Muhammadan Educational Conference held at Aligarh, December 1894 (Printed at the Pioneer Press,  Allahabad, 1895)

  17. The Pioneer, 31 December1895

  18.  The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 16 January 1897

  19. Shan Muhammad, The Aligarh Movement, Basic Documents : 1864-1898,  Meenakshi Prakashan, New Delhi, 1978, p-783

  20.  Dr. Major Syed Shahabuddeen, Ibid., p. 174.

  21.  This institution especially started for particular community students.

  22.  Yasir, SIA Muhammed. "Origin and Development of Islamic Education in Tamilnadu: A Historical    Perspective." Jamal Academic Research Journal: An Interdisciplinary 3.1 (2022).

  23.  Yasir, Muhammed, and S. I. A. April. "Labour legislation in India–A historical study." Indian Journal   of Applied Research 6.4 (2016): 34-36.

  24. Viji, Major Dr M., and SIA Muhammed Yasir. "Fountains of Islamic Education in Ancient Tamilnadu: A Historical Perspective."

  25.  Muhammed Yasir, S. I. A. "Islamic Education In Pallapatti Karur District A Historical Perspective."